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From a molecular viewpoint, key mechanistic themes have emerged: microbial metabolites such as SCFAs, tryptophan metabolites, and bile acids can penetrate into the CNS or signal via the vagus, modulating microglial activation, astrocytic support, and even neuronal gene expression

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FIGURE 9 4 Discussion GHK and its bioactive form, GHK-Cu, have been demonstrated to be safe and effective in various cellular, tissue, and animal models ( In IBD, the expression levels of tight junction proteins such as ZO-1 and Occludin, is generally suppressed, leading to increased intestinal permeability, enhanced pathogen infiltration, and exacerbated inflammatory responses ( in vivo and in vitro experimental models revealed that GHK-Cu upregulates the expression level of Occludin and ZO-1, suggesting its potential role in promoting intestinal barrier repair