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Most notably, Phil Ray and Norman Jacobson developed a device they called the electronic cigarette in the 1980s, but their product used evaporated nicotine instead of vaporised liquid, making it fundamentally different from modern e-cigarettes

This article was produced in collaboration with the Food & Environment Reporting Network, an independent, nonprofit news organization.

Control experiments contained pieces of wood of identical shape and size as the cigarette butts

CBs have been officially classified as hazardous waste in accordance with European conventions and have emerged as one of the most critical and concerning global waste issues (Rebischung et al., 2018)